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DYSMENORRHEA - PRIMARY
Primary dysmenorrhea is a painful menstruation without demonstrable pelvic disease.
Symptoms include intermittent painful spasms, crampy labor-like pain localized over the lower abdomen and the suprapubic area which may radiate to the lower back or inner thighs.
The pain may also be described as a dull ache or as a stabbing pain.
Accompanying symptoms include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, lightheadedness, fatigue, fever, muscle cramps, nervousness and fainting.

Dysmenorrhea - Primary References

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  3. Doty E, Attaran M. Managing primary dysmenorrhea. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2006 Oct;19(5):341-344. PMID: 17060018
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  5. Coco AS. Primary dysmenorrhea. Am Fam Physician. 1999 Aug;60(2):489-496. PMID: 10465224
  6. French L. Dysmenorrhea in adolescents, diagnosis and treatment. Pediatr Drugs. 2008;10(1):1-7. PMID: 18162003
  7. Lefebvre G, Pinsoneault O, Antao V, et al. SOGC clinical practice guideline. Primary dysmenorrhea consensus guideline. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2005 Dec;27(12):117-1146. PMID: 16524531
  8. Harel Z. Dysmenorrhea in adolescents, and young adults: from pathophysiology to pharmacological treatments and management strategies. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008 Oct;9(15):2661-2672. doi: 10.1517/14656566.9.15.2661. PMID: 18803452
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  11. Nasir L, Bope ET. Management of pelvic pain from dysmenorrhea or endometriosis. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2004;17(Suppl):S43-S47. PMID: 15575029
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  13. Laufer MR, Goldstein DP. Pediatric and adolescent gynecology. In: Ryan KJ, Berkowitz RS Barbieri RL, Dunaif A. Kistner's gynecology & women's health. 7th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1999:233-284
  14. The menstrual cycle. In: Ryan KJ, Berkowitz RS, Barbieri RL, Dunaif A. Kistner's gynecology & women's health. 7th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1999.
  15. Ferri FF. Dysmenorrhea (PTG). In: Alvero R, Borkan JM, Dobbs MR, et al, eds. Ferri's clinical advisor: instant diagnosis and treatment. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Mosby Inc, an affiliate of Elsevier; 2010
  16. Ferri FF. Menstrual pain. In: Alvero R, Borkan JM, Dobbs MR, et al, eds. Ferri's clinical advisor: instant diagnosis and treatment. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Mosby Inc, an affiliate of Elsevier; 2010
  17. Knight SK, Lipscomb GH, Ling FW. Pelvic pain. In: Noble J, Greene HL, Levinson W, et al. Textbook of primary care medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Mosby, Inc; 2001:323-328
  18. MedWormhttp://www.medworm.com/rss/index.php/OBGYN/29/http://www.medworm.com/rss/medicalfeeds/specialities/OBGYN.xml
  19. MedWormhttp://www.medworm.com/rss/index.php/Pediatrics/33/http://www.medworm.com/rss/medicalfeeds/specialities/Pediatrics.xml
  20. Family Nurse Practitioner Program. Recommendations for the treatment of dysmenorrhea. University of Texas at Austin School of Nursing. Family Nurse Practitioner Program. http://www.guideline.gov. 2000. Accessed 17 May 2010.
  21. Carter JE. Management of chronic pelvic pain. For the University of California, Irvine College of Medicine 24th Annual Review Course on Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. http://www.obgyn.net. Accessed 27 May 2010.
  22. National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health. Heavy menstrual bleeding. London: Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. http://www.nice.org.uk. Jan 2007.
  23. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Heavy menstrual bleeding. NICE. http://www.nice.org.uk. Jan 2007. Accessed 17 May 2010.
  24. Danakas GT, Alvero R. Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2014: 5 Books in 1. New edition. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: Elsevier Health Sciences; 2014. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed 23 May 2014:352.
  25. Ju H, Jones M, Mishra G. The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. Epidemiol Rev. 2014;36(1):104-113. doi: 10.1093/epirev/mxt009. PMID: 24284871
  26. Stewart K, Deb S. Dysmenorrhoea. Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproductive Medicine. 2016 Dec;26(12):364-367. doi: 10.1016/j.ogrm.2016.09.004. Accessed 28 Feb 2017
  27. Osayande AS, Mehulic S. Diagnosis and initial management of dysmenorrhea. Am Fam Physician. 2014 Mar 1;89(5):341-346. http://www.aafp.org. PMID: 24695505
  28. Smith RP, Kaunitz AM. Treatment of primary dysmenorrhea in adult women. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com. 09 Jun 2016.
  29. Burnett M, Lemyre M, et al. No. 345-Primary dysmenorrhea consensus guideline. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2017 Jul;39(7):585-595. doi: 10.1016/j.jogc.2016.12.023. PMID: 28625286
  30. ACOG committee opinion no. 760: Dysmenorrhea and endometriosis in the adolescent. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Dec;132(6):e249-e258. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000002978. PMID: 30461694
  31. Smith RP, Kaunitz AM. Dysmenorrhea in adult women: treatment. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com. 25 Feb 2020.
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Acute diarrhoea is the second leading cause of deathin children aged younger than 5 years, accounting forapproximately 1.9 million deaths worldwide each year;however, diarrhoea is a preventable and treatable condition.In Malaysia, acute gastroenteritis accounts for about 1.3%of all deaths in children aged younger than 5 years annually.Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more looseor watery stools within 24 hours, and it may be clinicallycategorised as either acute watery diarrhoea (AWD), acutebloody diarrhoea, persistent diarrhoea or diarrhoea withsevere malnutrition.